Set Exam Syllabus and sample quastions for compuer application and science

COMPUTER SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS
SYLLABUS AND SAMPLE QUESTIONS
NOTE : STRUCTURE OF PAPER II AND REVISED STRUCTURE OF PAPER III PLEASE
SEE PAGE NUMBER ONE.
PAPER—II
1. Discrete Structures
Sets, Relations, Functions, Pigeonhole Principle, Inclusion-Exclusion Principle, Equivalence
and Partial Orderings, Elementary Counting Techniques. Probability, Measure(s) for information
and Mutual information.
Computability : Models of computation-Finite Automata, Pushdown Automata. Non-determinism
and NFA, DPDA and PDAs and Languages accepted by these structures. Grammars, Languages,
Non-computability and Examples of non-computable problems.
Graph : Definition, walks, paths, trails, connected graphs, regular and bipartite graphs, cycles
and circuits. Tree and rooted tree. Spanning trees. Eccentricity of a vertex radius and diameter
of a graph. Central Graphs. Centre(s) of a tree. Hamiltonian and Eulerian graphs, Planar
graphs.
Groups : Finite fields and Error correcting/detecting codes.
2. Computer Arithmetic
Propositional (Boolean) Logic, Predicate Logic, Well-formed-formulae (WFF), Satisfiability
and Tautology.
Logic Families : TTL, ECL and C-MOS gates. Boolean algebra and Minimization of Boolean
functions, Flip-flops-types, race condition and comparison, Design of combinational and
sequential circuits.
Representation of Integers : Octal, Hex, Decimal and Binary. 2’s complement and 1’s
complement arithmetic, Floating point representation.
3. Programming in C and C++
Programming in C : Elements of C-Tokens, identitiers, data types in C. Control structures in
C. Sequence, selection and iteration(s), Structured data types in C arrays, struct, union, string
and pointers.
SET (Computer Science & Applications) / 4
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O-O Programming Concepts : Class, object, instantiation, Inheritance, polymorphism and
overloading.
C++ Programming : Elements of C++-Tokens, identifiers, Variables and constants, Data types,
Operators, Control statements, Functions parameter passing, Class and objects, Constructors
and destructors, Overloading, Inheritance, Templates, Exception handling.
4. Relational Database Design and SQL
E R diagrams and their transformation to relational design, normalization-1NF, 2NF, 3NF,
BCNF and 4NF. Limitations of 4NF and BCNF.
SQL : Data Definition language (DDL), Data Manipulation Language (DML), Data Control
language (DCL) commands. Database objects like-Views, indexes, sequences, synonyms, data
dictionary.
5. Data and File structures
Data, Information, Definition of data structure, Arrays, stacks, queues, linked lists, trees,
graphs, priority queues and heaps.
File Structures : Fields, records and files, Sequential, direct, index-sequential and relative
files, Hashing, inverted lists and multi-lists B trees and B+ trees.
6. Computer Networks
Network fundamentals : Local Area Networks (LAN), Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN),
Wide Area Networks (WAN), Wireless Networks, Inter Networks.
Reference Models : The OSI model, TCP/IP model.
Data Communication : Channel capacity, Transmission Media-twisted pair, coaxial cables,
fibre-optic cables, wireless transmission-radio, microwave infrared and millimeter waves.
Lightwave transmission, Thelephones-local loop, trunks, multiplexing, switching, narrowband
ISDN, broadband ISDN, ATM, High speed LANS, Cellular Radio. Communication satellitesgeosynchronous
and low-orbit.
Internetworking : Switch/Hub, Bridge, Router, Gateways, Concatenated virtual circuits,
Tunnelling, Fragmentation, Firewalls.
Routing : Virtual circuits and datagrams, Routing algorithms, Conjestion control.
Network Security : Cryptography-public key, secret key, Domain Name System (DNS)-Electronic
Mail and Worldwide Web (WWW), The DNS, Resource Records, Name servers, E-mail
architecture and Serves.
7. System Software and Compilers
Assembly language fundamentals (8085 based assembly language programming). Assemblers-
2 pass and single-pass. Macros and macroprocessors.
Loading, linking, relocation, program relocatability, Linkage editing.
Text editors, Programming Environments, Debuggers and program generators.
Compilation and Interpretation. Bootstrap compilers. Phases of compilation process. Lexical
analysis. Lex package on Unix system.
SET (Computer Science & Applications) / 5
computer sci & applicat_SET syllabus (03-09)
Context free grammars, Parsing and parse trees, Representation of parse (derivation) trees as
rightmost and left most derivations. Bottom up parsers-shift-reduce, operator precedence, and
LR, YACC package on Unix system.
Topdown parsers-left recursion and its removal, Recursive descent parser. Predictive parser,
Intermediate codes-Quadruples, Triples, Intermediate code generation, Code generation, Code
optimization.
8. Operating Systems (with Case Study of Unix)
Main functions of operating systems. Multiprogramming, multiprocessing, and multitasking.
Memory Management : Virtual memory, paging, fragmentation.
Concurrent Processing : Mutual exclusion, Critical regions, lock and unlock.
Scheduling : CPU scheduling, I/O scheduling, Resource scheduling, Deadlock and scheduling
algorithms. Banker’s algorithm for deadlock handling.
UNIX
The Unix System : File system, process management, bourne shell shell variables, command
line programming.
Filters and Commands : Pr, head, tail, cut, paste, sort, uniq, tr, join, etc., grep, egrep,
fgrep, etc., sed, awk, etc.
System Calls (like) : Creat, open, close, read, write, iseek, link, unlink, stat, fstat, umask,
chmod, exec, fork, wait, system.
9. Software Engineering
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) : Steps, Water fall model, Prototypes, Spiral model.
Software Metrics : Software Project Management.
Software Design : System design, detailed design, function oriented design, object oriented
design, user interface design. Design level metrics.
Coding and testing : Testing level metrics, Software quality and reliability, Clean room
approach, software reengineering.
10. Current Trends and Technologies
The topics of current interest in Computer Science and Computer Applications shall be covered.
The experts shall use their judgement from time to time to include the topics of popular
interest, which are expected to be known for an application development software professional,
currently, they include :
Parallel Computing
Parallel virtual machine (pvm) and message passing interface (mpi) libraries and calls.
Advanced architectures. Today’s fastest computers.
Mobile Computing
Mobile connectivity-Cells, Framework, wireless delivery technology and switching
methods, mobile information access devices, mobile data internetworking standards, cellular
data communication protocols, mobile computing applications, Mobile databases-protocols,
scope, tools and technology, M-business.
SET (Computer Science & Applications) / 6
computer sci & applicat_SET syllabus (03-09)
E-Technologies
Electronic Commerce : Framework, Media Convergence of Applications, Consumer
Applications, Organisation Applications.
Electronic Payment Systems : Digital Token, Smart Cards, Credit Cards, Risks in Electronic
Payment System, Designing Electronic Payment Systems.
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) : Concepts, Applications, (Legal, Security and Privacy)
issues, EDI and Electronic Commerce, Standardization and EDI, EDI Software
Implementation, EDI Envelope for Message Transport, Internet-Based EDI.
Digital Libraries and Data Warehousing : Concepts, Types of Digital documents, Issues
behind document Infrastructure, Corporate data Warehouses.
Software Agents : Characteristics and Properties of Agents, Technology behind Software
Agents (Applets, Browsers and Software Agents).
Broadband Telecommunications : Concepts, Frame Relay, Cell Relay, Switched
Multimegabit data Service, Asynchronous Transfer Mode.
Main concepts in Geographical Information System (GIS), E-cash, E-Business, ERP
packages.
Data Warehousing : Data Warehouse environment, architecture of a data warehouse
methodology, analysis, design, construction and administration.
Data Mining : Extracting models and patterns from large databases, data mining techniques,
classification, regression, clustering, summarization, dependency modelling, link analysis,
sequencing analysis, mining scientific and business data.
Windows Programming
Introduction to Windows programming-Win32, Microsoft Foundation Classes (MFC),
Documents and views, Resources, Message handling in windows.
Simple Applications (in windows)
Scrolling, splitting views, docking toolbars, status bars, common dialogs.
Advanced Windows Programming
Multiple Document Interface (MDI), Multithreading, Object linking and Embedding (OLE),
Active X controls, Active Template Library (ATL), Network programming.
PAPER—III (A)
(CORE GROUP)
Unit-I
Combinational Circuit Design, Sequential Circuit Design, Hardwired and Microprogrammed
processor design, Instruction formats, Addressing modes, Memory types and organisation,
Interfacing peripheral devices, Interrupts.
Microprocessor architecture, Instruction set and Programming (8085, P-III/P-IV), Microprocessor
applications.
Unit—II
Database Concepts, ER diagrams, Data Models, Design of Relational Database, Normalisation,
SQL and QBE, Query Processing and Optimisation, Centralised and Distributed Database,
Security, Concurrency and Recovery in Centralised and Distributed Database Systems, Object
Oriented Database, Management Systems (Concepts, Composite objects, Integration with
RDBMS applications), ORACLE.
SET (Computer Science & Applications) / 7
computer sci & applicat_SET syllabus (03-09)
Unit—III
Display systems, Input devices, 2D Geometry, Graphic operations, 3D Graphics, Animation,
Graphic standard, Applications.
Concepts, Storage Devices, Input Tools, Authoring Tools, Application, Files.
Unit—IV
Programming language concepts, paradigms and models.
Data, Data types, Operators, Expressions, Assignment, Flow of Control-Control structures, I/
O statements, User-defined and built-in functions, Parameter passing.
Principles, classes, inheritance, class hierarchies, polymorphism, dynamic binding, reference
semantics and their implementation.
Principles, functions, lists, types and polymorphisms, higher order functions, lazy evaluation,
equations and pattern matching.
Principles, horn clauses and their execution, logical variables, relations, data structures,
controlling the search order, program development in prolog, implementation of prolog, example
programs in prolog.
Principles of parallelism, coroutines, communication and execution, Parallel Virtual Machine
(PVM) and Message Passing Interface (MPI) routines and calls. Parallel programs in PVM
paradigm as well as MPI paradigm for simple problems like matrix multplication.
Preconditions, post-conditions, axiomatic approach for semantics, correctness, denotational
semantics.
Compiler structure, compiler construction tools, compilation phases.
Finite Automata, Pushdown Automata, Non-determinism and NFA, DPDA, and PDAs and
languages accepted by these structures. Grammars, Languages-types of grammars-type 0, type
1, type 2 and type 3. The relationship between types of grammars, and finite machines.
Pushdown automata and Context Free Grammars. Lexical Analysis-regular expressions and
regular languages, LEX package on Unix. Conversion of NFA to DFA. Minimizing the number
of states in a DFA. Compilation and Interpretation. Bootstrap compilers.
Context free grammars, Parsing and parse trees. Representation of parse (derivation) trees as
rightmost and leftmost derivations. Bottom up parsers-shift-reduce, operator precedence, and
LR, YACC package on Unix system. Topdown parsers-left recursion and its removal. Recursive
descent parser. Predictive parser, Intermediate codes-Quadruples, triples, Intermediate code
generation, code generation, Code optimization.
Unit—V
Analog and Digital transmission, Asynchronous and Synchronous transmission, Transmission
media, Multiplexing and Concentration, Switching techniques, Polling.
Topologies, Networking Devices, OSI Reference Model, Protocols for-(i) Data link layer,
(ii) Network layer, and (iii) Transport layer, TCP/IP protocols, Networks security, Network
administration.
SET (Computer Science & Applications) / 8
computer sci & applicat_SET syllabus (03-09)
Unit—VI
Definition, Simple and Composite structures, Arrays, Lists, Stacks queues, Priority queues,
Binary trees, B-trees, Graphs.
Sorting and Searching Algorithms, Analysis of Algorithms, Interpolation and Binary Search,
Asymptotic notations-big ohm, omega and theta. Average case analysis of simple programs
like finding of a maximum of n elements, Recursion and its systematic removal. Quicksort-
Non-recursive implementation with minimal stack storage. Design of Algorithms (Divide and
Conquer, Greedy method, Dynamic programming, Back tracking, Branch and Bound). Lower
bound theory, Non-deterministic algorithm-Non-deterministic programming constructs. Simple
non-deterministic programs. NP-hard and NP-complete problems.
Unit—VII
Object, messages, classes, encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism aggregation, abstract classes
generalization as extension and restriction, Object oriented design. Multiple inheritance,
metadata.
HTML, DHTML, XML, Scripting, Java, Servelets, Applets.
Unit—VIII
Software development models, Requirement analysis and specifications. Software design,
Programming techniques and tools, Software validation and quality assurance techniques,
Software maintenance and advanced concepts, Software management.
Unit—IX
Introduction, Memory management, Support for concurrent process, Scheduling, System
deadlock, Multiprogramming system, I/O management, Distributed operating systems, Study
of Unix and Windows NT.
Unit—X
Definitions, AI approach for solving problems.
Automated Reasoning with propositional logic and predicate logic-fundamental proof procedure,
refutation, resolution, refinements to resolution (ordering/pruning/restriction strategies).
State space representation of problems, bounding functions, breadth first, depth first, A, A*,
AO*, etc. Performance comparison of various search techniques.
Frames, scripts, semantic nets, production systems, procedural representations, Prolog
programming.
Components of an expert system, Knowledge representation and Acquisition techniques,
Building expert system and Shell.
RTNs, ATNs, Parsing of Ambiguous CFGs. Tree Adjoining Grammars (TAGs).
Systems approach to planning, Designing, Development, Implementation and Evaluation of
MIS.
SET (Computer Science & Applications) / 9
computer sci & applicat_SET syllabus (03-09)
Decision-making processes, evaluation of DSS, Group decision support system and case studies,
Adaptive design approach to DSS development, Cognitive style in DSS, Integrating expert and
Decision support systems.
PAPER—III (B)
(ELECTIVE/OPTIONAL)
Elective—I
Theory of Computation : Formal language, Need for formal computational models, Noncomputational
problems, diagonal argument and Russel’s paradox.
Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA), Non-deterministic Finite Automaton (NFA), Regular
languages and regular sets. Equivalence of DFA and NFA. Minimizing the number of states
of a DFA. Non-regular languages and Pumping lemma.
Pushdown Automaton (PDA), Deterministic Pushdown Automaton (DPDA), Non-equilvalence
of PDA and DPDA.
Context free Grammars : Greibach Normal Form (GNF) and Chomsky Normal Form (CNF),
Ambiguity, Parse Tree Representation of Derivations, Equivalence of PDA’s and CFG’s. Parsing
techniques for parsing of general CFG’s-Early’s, Cook-Kassami-Younger (CKY) and Tomita’s
parsing.
Linear Bounded Automata (LBA) : Power of LBA. Closure properties.
Turing Machine (TM) : One tape, multitape. The notions of time and space complexity in
terms of TM, Construction of TM for simple problems. Computational complexity.
Chomsky Hierarchy of languages : Recursive and recursively-enumerable languages.
Elective—II
Models for Information Channel : Discrete Memoryless Channel, Binary Symmetric Channel
(BSC), Burst Channel, Bit-error rates. Probability, Entropy and Shannon’s measure of
information, Mutual information, Channel capacity theorem, Rate and optimality of Information
transmission.
Variable Length Codes : Prefix Codes, Huffmann Codes, Lempel-Ziev (LZ) Codes, Optimality
of these codes, Information content of these codes.
Error Correcting and Detecting Codes : Finite fields, Hamming distance, Bounds of codes,
Linear (Parity Check) codes, Parity check matrix, Generator matrix. Decoding of linear codes,
Hamming codes.
Image Processing : Image Registration, Spatial Fourier transforms, Discrete Spatial
(2-dimensional) Fourier Transforms, Restoration, Lossy Compression of images (pictures).
Data Compression Techniques : Representation and compression of text, sound, picture, and
video files (based on the JPEG and MPEG standards).
Elective—III
Linear Programming : Problem (LPP) in the standard form, LPP in canonical form, Conversion
of LPP in standard form to LPP in Canonical form Simplex-Prevention of cyclic computations
in Simplex and Tableau, Big Method, dual simplex and revised simplex.
Complexity of simplex algorithm(s) Exponential behaviour of simplex.
SET (Computer Science & Applications) / 10
computer sci & applicat_SET syllabus (03-09)
Ellipsoid method and karmakar’s method for solving LPPs, Solving simple LPPs through
these methods. Comparison of complexity of these methods.
Assignment and Transportation Problems : Simple algorithms like Hungarian method, etc.
Shortest Path Problems : Dijkstra’s and Moore’s method, Complexity.
Network Flow Problem : Formulation, Max-Flow Min-Cut theorem, Ford and Fulkerson’s
algorithm. Exponential behaviour of Ford and Fulkerson’s algorithm, Malhotra-Pramodkumar-
Maheshwari (MPM) Polynomial algorithm for solving Network flow problem. Bipartite Graphs
and matchings; Solving matching problems using Network flow problems.
Matroids : Definition, Graphic and Cographic matroids, Matroid intersection problem.
Non-Linear programming : Kuhn-Tucker conditions, Convex functions and Convex regions,
Convex programming problems, Algorithms for solving convex programming problems-Rate
of convergence of iterative methods for solving these problems.
Elective—IV
Neural Networks : Perceptron model, Linear separability and XOR problem. Two and three
layered neural nets, Backpropagation-Convergence, Hopfield nets, Neural net learning,
Applications.
Fuzzy Systems : Definition of a Fuzzy set, Fuzzy relations, Fuzzy functions, Fuzzy measures,
Fuzzy reasoning, Applications of Fuzzy systems.
Elective—V
Unix : Operating System, Structure of Unix Operating System. Unix Commands, Interfacing
with Unix, Editors and Compilers for Unix. LEX and YACC, File system, System calls,
Filters, Shell programming.
Windows : Windows environment, Unicode, Documents and Views, Drawing in a window,
Message handling, Scrolling and Spliting views, Docking toolbars and Status bars, Common
dialogs and Controls, MDI, Multithreading, OLE, Active X controls, ATL, Database access,
Network programming.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
PAPER—II
1. Which among the following is not a structured data type in C ?
(A) Union
(B) Pointer
(C) String
(D) Boolean
2. A B-tree of order m is an m-way scarch tree with
(A) all leaves of the tree on the same level
(B) each node, except for root and leaves, having less than m/2 subtrees
(C) the root of the tree having more than m subtrees
(D) all its leaves connected to form a linked list

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HDFC Bank Recruits Freshers

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WIPRO BPO Apply Freshers

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Requirements analysis

Requirements analysis in systems engineering and software engineering, encompasses those tasks that go into determining the needs or conditions to meet for a new or altered product, taking account of the possibly conflicting requirementsof the various stakeholders, such as beneficiaries or users.

Requirements analysis is critical to the success of a development project.^[2]Requirements must be actionable, measurable, testable, related to identified business needs or opportunities, and defined to a level of detail sufficient for system design.

Conceptually, requirements analysis includes three types of activity:

• Eliciting requirements: the task of communicating with customers and users to determine what their requirements are. This is sometimes also called requirements gathering.
• Analyzing requirements: determining whether the stated requirements are unclear, incomplete, ambiguous, or contradictory, and then resolving these issues.
• Recording requirements: Requirements may be documented in various forms, such as natural-language documents, use cases, user stories, or process specifications.

Requirements analysis can be a long and arduous process during which many delicate psychological skills are involved. New systems change the environment and relationships between people, so it is important to identify all the stakeholders, take into account all their needs and ensure they understand the implications of the new systems. Analysts can employ several techniques to elicit the requirements from the customer. Historically, this has included such things as holding interviews, or holding focus groups (more aptly named in this context as requirements workshops) and creating requirements lists. More modern techniques include prototyping, and use cases. Where necessary, the analyst will employ a combination of these methods to establish the exact requirements of the stakeholders, so that a system that meets the business needs is produced.

Requirements engineering

Systematic requirements analysis is also known as requirements engineering. It is sometimes referred to loosely by names such asrequirements gathering, requirements capture, or requirements specification. The term requirements analysis can also be applied specifically to the analysis proper, as opposed to elicitation or documentation of the requirements, for instance.

Requirement engineering is a subdiscipline of systems engineering and software engineering that is concerned with determining the goals, functions, and constrains of hardware and software systems. In some life cycle models, the requirement engineering process begins with a feasibility study activity, which leads to a feasibility report. If the feasibility study suggest that the product should be developed, then requirement analysis can begin. If requirement analysis precedes feasibility studies, which may foster outside the box thinking, then feasibility should be determined before requirements are finalized.

Requirements analysis topics

Stakeholder identification

A major new emphasis in the 1990s was a focus on the identification of stakeholders. It is increasingly recognized that stakeholders are not limited to the organization employing the analyst. Other stakeholders will include:

• those organizations that integrate (or should integrate) horizontally with the organization the analyst is designing the system for
• any back office systems or organizations
• Senior management.

Stakeholder interviews

Stakeholder interviews are a common method used in requirement analysis. These interviews may reveal requirements not previously envisaged as being within the scope of the project, and requirements may be contradictory. However, each stakeholder will have an idea of their expectation or will have visualized their requirements.

Contract-style requirement lists

One traditional way of documenting requirements has been contract style requirement lists. In a complex system such requirements lists can run to hundreds of pages.

Measurable goals

Best practices take the composed list of requirements merely as clues and repeatedly ask "why?" until the actual business purposes are discovered. Stakeholders and developers can then devise tests to measure what level of each goal has been achieved thus far. Such goals change more slowly than the long list of specific but unmeasured requirements. Once a small set of critical, measured goals has been established, rapid prototyping and short iterative development phases may proceed to deliver actual stakeholder value long before the project is half over.

Prototypes

In the mid-1980s, prototyping was seen as the solution to the requirements analysis problem. Prototypes are mock-ups of an application. Mock-ups allow users to visualize an application that hasn't yet been constructed. Prototypes help users get an idea of what the system will look like, and make it easier for users to make design decisions without waiting for the system to be built. Major improvements in communication between users and developers were often seen with the introduction of prototypes. Early views of applications led to fewer changes later and hence reduced overall costs considerably.

However, over the next decade, while proving a useful technique, prototyping did not solve the requirements problem:

• Managers, once they see a prototype, may have a hard time understanding that the finished design will not be produced for some time.
• Designers often feel compelled to use patched together prototype code in the real system, because they are afraid to 'waste time' starting again.
• Prototypes principally help with design decisions and user interface design. However, they can not tell you what the requirements originally were.
• Designers and end users can focus too much on user interface design and too little on producing a system that serves the business process.
• Prototypes work well for user interfaces, screen layout and screen flow but are not so useful for batch or asynchronous processes which may involve complex database updates and/or calculations.

Prototypes can be flat diagrams (referred to as 'wireframes') or working applications using synthesized functionality. Wireframes are made in a variety of graphic design documents, and often remove all color from the software design (i.e. use a greyscale color palette) in instances where the final software is expected to have graphic design applied to it. This helps to prevent confusion over the final visual look and feel of the application.

Use cases

Main article: Use case

A use case is a technique for documenting the potential requirements of a new system or software change. Each use case provides one or more scenarios that convey how the system should interact with the end user or another system to achieve a specific business goal. Use cases typically avoid technical jargon, preferring instead the language of the end user or domain expert. Use cases are often co-authored by requirements engineers and stakeholders.

Use cases are deceptively simple tools for describing the behavior of software or systems. A use case contains a textual description of all of the ways which the intended users could work with the software or system. Use cases do not describe any internal workings of the system, nor do they explain how that system will be implemented. They simply show the steps that a user follows to perform a task. All the ways that users interact with a system can be described in this manner.

Software requirements specification

A software requirements specification (SRS) is a complete description of the behavior of the system to be developed. It includes a set of use cases that describe all of the interactions that the users will have with the software. Use cases are also known as functional requirements. In addition to use cases, the SRS also contains nonfunctional (or supplementary) requirements. Non-functional requirements are requirements which impose constraints on the design or implementation (such as performance requirements, quality standards, or design constraints).

Recommended approaches for the specification of software requirements are described by IEEE 830-1998. This standard describes possible structures, desirable contents, and qualities of a software requirements specification.

Types of Requirements

Requirements are categorized in several ways. The following are common categorizations of requirements that relate to technical management:

Customer Requirements 

Statements of fact and assumptions that define the expectations of the system in terms of mission objectives, environment, constraints, and measures of effectiveness and suitability (MOE/MOS). The customers are those that perform the eight primary functions of systems engineering, with special emphasis on the operator as the key customer. Operational requirements will define the basic need and, at a minimum, answer the questions posed in the following listing:

• Operational distribution or deployment: Where will the system be used?
• Mission profile or scenario: How will the system accomplish its mission objective?
• Performance and related parameters: What are the critical system parameters to accomplish the mission?
• Utilization environments: How are the various system components to be used?
• Effectiveness requirements: How effective or efficient must the system be in performing its mission?
• Operational life cycle: How long will the system be in use by the user?
• Environment: What environments will the system be expected to operate in an effective manner?

Functional Requirements

Functional requirements explain what has to be done, and identified The necessary task, action or activity that must be accomplished. Functional requirements analysis will be used as the toplevel functions for functional analysis. 

Performance Requirements

The extent to which a mission or function must be executed; generally measured in terms of quantity, quality, coverage, timeliness or readiness. During requirements analysis, performance (how well does it have to be done) requirements will be interactively developed across all identified functions based on system life cycle factors; and characterized in terms of the degree of certainty in their estimate, the degree of criticality to system success, and their relationship to other requirements.^[1]

Design Requirements

The “build to,” “code to,” and “buy to” requirements for products and “how to execute” requirements for processes expressed in technical data packages and technical manuals.

Derived Requirements

Requirements that are implied or transformed from higher-level requirement. For example, a requirement for long range or high speed may result in a design requirement for low weight.

Allocated Requirements

A requirement that is established by dividing or otherwise allocating a high-level requirement into multiple lower-level requirements. Example: A 100-pound item that consists of two subsystems might result in weight requirements of 70 pounds and 30 pounds for the two lower-level items.

Requirements analysis issuesStakeholder issues

Steve McConnell, in his book Rapid Development, details a number of ways users can inhibit requirements gathering:

• Users do not understand what they want or users don't have a clear idea of their requirements
• Users will not commit to a set of written requirements
• Users insist on new requirements after the cost and schedule have been fixed
• Communication with users is slow
• Users often do not participate in reviews or are incapable of doing so
• Users are technically unsophisticated
• Users do not understand the development process
• Users do not know about present technology

This may lead to the situation where user requirements keep changing even when system or product development has been started.

Engineer/developer issues

Possible problems caused by engineers and developers during requirements analysis are:

• Technical personnel and end users may have different vocabularies. Consequently, they may wrongly believe they are in perfect agreement until the finished product is supplied.
• Engineers and developers may try to make the requirements fit an existing system or model, rather than develop a system specific to the needs of the client.
• Analysis may often be carried out by engineers or programmers, rather than personnel with the people skills and the domain knowledge to understand a client's needs properly.

Attempted solutions

One attempted solution to communications problems has been to employ specialists in business or system analysis.

Techniques introduced in the 1990s like prototyping, Unified Modeling Language (UML), use cases, and Agile software development are also intended as solutions to problems encountered with previous methods.

Also, a new class of application simulation or application definition tools have entered the market. These tools are designed to bridge the communication gap between business users and the IT organization — and also to allow applications to be 'test marketed' before any code is produced. The best of these tools offer:

• electronic whiteboards to sketch application flows and test alternatives
• ability to capture business logic and data needs
• ability to generate high fidelity prototypes that closely imitate the final application
• interactivity
• capability to add contextual requirements and other comments
• ability for remote and distributed users to run and interact with the simulation

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